Polyandry in Tibet Brothers Marrying the Same Wife

Polyandry is the name given to the cultural practice of the marriage of one woman to more than one man.  The term for polyandry where the husbands of the shared wife are brothers to each other is  fraternal polyandry or  adelphic polyandry. Polyandry in Tibet In Tibet, fraternal polyandry was accepted. Brothers would marry one woman, who left her family to join her husbands, and the children of the marriage would inherit the land. Like many cultural customs, polyandry in Tibet was compatible with specific challenges of geography. In a country where there was little tillable land, the practice of polyandry would reduce the number of heirs, because a woman has more biological limits on the number of children she can have than a man does. Thus, the land would stay within the same family, undivided. The marriage of brothers to the same woman would ensure that brothers stayed on the land together to work that land, providing for more adult male labor.  Fraternal polyandry permitted sharing of responsibilities so that one brother might focus on animal husbandry and another on the fields, for example.  The practice would also ensure that if one husband needed to travel—for instance, for trade purposes—another husband (or more) would remain with the family and land. Genealogies, population  registers,  and indirect measures have helped ethnographers to estimate the occurrence of polyandry. Melvyn C. Goldstein, professor of anthropology at Case Western University, in Natural History  (vol. 96, no. 3, March 1987, pp. 39-48), describes some details of Tibetan custom, especially polyandry. The custom occurs in many different economic classes but is especially common in peasant landowning families.  The eldest brother usually dominates the household, though all the brothers are, in theory, equal sexual partners of the shared wife, and children are considered shared. Where there is no such equality, there is sometimes conflict. Monogamy and polygyny are also practiced, he notes—polygyny (more than one wife) being practiced sometimes if the first wife is barren.  Polyandry is not a requirement but a choice of brothers. Sometimes a brother chooses to leave the polyandrous household, though any children he may have fathered to that date stay in the household.  Marriage ceremonies sometimes only include the eldest brother and sometimes all the (adult) brothers.  Where there are brothers at the time of marriage who are not of age, they may join the household later. Goldstein reports that, when he asked Tibetans why they dont simply have monogamous marriages of the brothers and share the land among heirs (rather than splitting it up as other cultures would do), the Tibetans said that there would be competition among the mothers to advance their own children. Goldstein also notes that for the men involved, given the limited farmland, the practice of polyandry is beneficial to the brothers because work and responsibility are shared, and younger brothers are more likely to have a secure standard of living.  Because Tibetans prefer not to divide the  familys land, family pressure works against a younger brother achieving success on his own. Polyandry declined, opposed by political leaders of India, Nepal, and China.  Polyandry is now against the law in Tibet, though it is occasionally still practiced. Polyandry and Population Growth Polyandry, along with widespread celibacy among Buddhist monks, served to slow population growth.   Thomas Robert Malthus  (1766  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 1834), the English cleric who studied population growth, considered that the ability of a population to stay at a level proportional to the ability to feed the population was related to virtue and to human happiness. In  An Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798,  Book I, Chapter XI, Of the Checks to Population in Indostan and Tibet, he documents a practice of polyandry among the Hindu  Nayrs (see below).  He  then discussed polyandry (and widespread celibacy among both men and women in monasteries) among the Tibetans.  He draws on  Turners Embassy to Tibet,  a description by Captain Samuel Turner of his journey through Bootan (Bhutan) and Tibet. Hence religious retirement is frequent,  and the number of monasteries and nunneries is considerable....  But even among the laity the business of population goes on very coldly. All the brothers of a family, without any restriction of age or of numbers, associate their fortunes with one female, who is chosen by the eldest, and considered as the mistress of the house; and whatever may be the profits of their several pursuits, the result flows into the common store. The number of husbands is not apparently defined, or restricted within any limits. It sometimes happens that in a small family there is but one male; and the number, Mr. Turner says, may seldom exceed that which a native of rank at Teshoo Loomboo pointed out to him in a family resident in the neighbourhood, in which five brothers were then living together very happily with one female under the same connubial compact. Nor is this sort of league confined to the lower ranks of people alone; it is found also frequently in the most opulent families. Polyandry Elsewhere The practice of polyandry in Tibet is perhaps the best-known and best-documented incidence of cultural polyandry. But it has been practiced in other cultures. There is a reference to the abolition of polyandry in Lagash, a Sumerian city, in about 2300 BCE. The Hindu religious epic text, the  Mahabharata, mentions a woman, Draupadi, who marries five brothers.  Draupadi was the daughter of the king of Panchala. Polyandry was practiced in a part of India close to Tibet and also in South India. Some Paharis in Northern India still practice polyandry, and fraternal polyandry has become more common in Punjab, presumably to prevent the dividing of inherited lands. As noted above, Malthus discussed polyandry among the Nayrs on the Malabar coast of South India.  The Nayrs (Nairs or Nayars) were Hindus, members of a collection of castes, who sometimes practiced either hypergamy—marrying into higher castes—or polyandry, though he is reluctant to describe this as marriage: Among the Nayrs, it is the custom for one Nayr woman to have attached to her two males, or four, or perhaps more. Goldstein, who studied Tibetan polyandry, also documented polyandry among the Pahari people, Hindu farmers living in lower sections of the Himalayas who occasionally practiced fraternal polyandry (Pahari and Tibetan Polyandry Revisited, Ethnology. 17(3): 325-327, 1978).

The Social Learning Environment And Counseling Essay

The Social Learning Environment and Counseling Learning is a general term, describing numerous processes involved in acquiring information (or knowledge), and skills gain through experience(s) with the environment or the self. Researchers have long placed emphasis on environmental factors, such as societal norms on shaping behavior. As an individual interacts with the environment, patterns of behaviors emerge as a consequence. Therefore the environment of an individual for example can be thought of as the modality in which learning occurs. Although, behaviorist attributes such learning, and patterns of behavior to underlying reinforcement mechanisms that have been empirically supported, there are other learning forces that govern learning with respects to the social environment such as social learning, which may have implications into understanding societal structures and dynamics. Social learning is sometimes referred to as observational learning, imitation learning, or vicarious learning, as learning occurs through the action of watching others, hence the term. Additionally, observational learning may lead to imitation, and thereby the mastery of a skill (learning). Social learning encompasses learning that may be active or passive respectively in certain respects, as not all behaviors observed are imitated. Certain types of behaviors such as aggression are more readily imitated by children as Bandura and Huston (1961) noted, while studying the process of identificationShow MoreRelatedGroup Counseling For Children And Adolescents1630 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Group Counseling Individuals with learning disabilities have a particularly high incidence of mental health problems and are often assigned what is known as dual diagnosis. 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Ict in Disaster Managment

Question: Discuss about the Ict in Disaster Managment. Answer: Introduction The subject of this article is ethics in ICT or information and communication technology. Ethics is one of the most important factors in professional fields irrespective of the nature of profession. Information and communication technology is the most rapid-growing segment in which the professionals are deployed for the core sector of service. This article will depict case study in respect of ethical practices in the information and communication technology(Mishra, 2015). This report is based on a Case study on Kenya about their interaction with disasters, either man-made or nature made, and the consequential role of ICT to counter those disasters. The world is facing several disasters in recent years and they are being segmented as flood, famine, displacement of human being, ethnic clashes and different other calamities which cause loss of property and life and Kenya is one of the worst victims of those occurrence(MIC, 2006). This situations drive towards the need of the disaster management in Kenya which is being spearheaded by KRCS or Kenya red Cross Authority who took the responsibility of this task. The role of ICT can never be denied in this project. Description The Case Study The considered case study for the article is ICT IN Disaster Management a case study of Kenya Red Cross Society which was being submitted in the School of Journalism, University of Nairobi by Cherotich Mungou in November 2009(Management, 2009). In this case study the effort KRCS adopted to counter the disaster had been discussed with various impacts on different fields of activities along with special emphasis put on ICT domain. Our objective is to highlight the ethical issues involved in the case related to application of CIT in disaster management taken over by the KRCS for determination of the perfect application of the same to optimise the output of the effort. ICT is being described by Powell as the instrument to get the most possible benefit with the help of latest technologies which is being available through computers, audio and video which are being explored in different ways with the single focal point of supporting the technologies which can make the best support for computers, telephones and TV are being tied up with interconnection. The role of ICT in disaster management is mainly for the post-disaster development and rehabilitation issues. The necessary information is gathered through the technology and being used with the proper analysis of historic data of happenings through different sources stored in computers or in other social media. Thus the role of ICT is being derived through proper application to understand by means of past experience to initiate proper steps to ensure responses, with the need-based rescue, recovery and evacuation actions through trained teams by sharing the information in different level of stakeholders with the objective of minimise the losses related to property and life. ICT and Disaster Management Suda (2007) has depicted the effect of disaster generates the need of development in every level of affected, be it life or property(YAP, 2011). ICT Tools for Disaster Management Wattegama (2007) had emphasized the different channels for making effective warning for upcoming disaster in a quick and accurate way so far it is possible. The role of radio and television is being acknowledged as the most useful device for this purpose for warning of disaster as they are able to send the warning message to people in fast speed. The example of Tsunami in 2004 in Indian Ocean showed that many radio producers had initiated new digital radio alert systems even when the set is switched off. The role of telephone is playing a major contribution in this aspect by sending alert to the population for the disaster. The other instruments in the forms of SMS, cell broadcasting are also useful while to send alerts to the population for the disaster(ICT, 2008). ICT and Kenya Red Cross Society The Kenya Red Cross Society is playing a major role in disaster management with the help of introduction of proper ICT to alert the population to combat the disaster. The basic investment in the sector by KRCS had been made to install networking at the head quarters, regional and branch offices all over the country for better way of communicating between the offices(Daniel, 2013). Ethical Issues Related to ICT The ethical issues as highlighted by Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) had been considered in the case study related to ICT which are being given below:- Plagiarism and fraud- the author of the case study had not used any information from any other previous writer without making any proper acknowledgement to him. Moreover any fake data had been used for this case study to structure the methodology and findings(Wattegama, 2008). Voluntary participation- The author had asked for voluntary participation by the KRCS personnel for getting the information, the answers from the stakeholders for interview and the questionnaire set for this study. Preservation of information- The author had not made the information public, instead kept it private to ensure that the information suppliers should not feel humiliated with the information passed on to him to make the image of KRCS intact. The confidentiality of the information had been ensured with the assurance that the information will be used for academic purpose and not for other purposes(Manavalan, Mohanram, Ramakrishnan, 2010). Analysis and reporting- The case study had projected the merits and demerits of in the specified report along with highlighting the technical shortcomings and failures of the case study to make the reader understand while evaluating the work. Anonymity and privacy- During the course of this case study, the researcher had ensured that the respondents should have their information well secured by not publicising the name of them. The contributors of this study thus kept safe individually with their names being treated as private and confidential(Halder, 2016). with the above discussion on ethical issues related to the specified case study of Disaster Management , the ethical issues related to ICT is being emphasized which the professional of the core segment of ICT should follow. The main ethical issue is to ensure the safety and security of the personnel who supplied information for the case study(Cooper, Yeager, Burkle, Subbarao, 2015). Moreover the bad habits of plagiarism and fake information sharing are to be strictly avoided to prove the authenticity of ICT related performing areas. The areas of reporting should be maintained in such a way that the case study should reveal the positive and negative side of the study with further scope of improvement in the segment of the study. Conclusion The case study on disaster management in Kenya by the researcher, Cherotich Mungou had emphasized on the different aspects of the matter with the proper revelation for proper and timely impact for warning and the subsequent steps with the help of perfect participation by KRCS officials. The ethical issues on ICT are important in this aspect as the case study will help people for future steps to be taken to combat disaster to save life and property. It is mostly found that unethical practices may lead to misguiding people, and thus the ethical practices of ICT professionals should be treated as first and foremost area to ensure perfection and honesty of the said domain. References: Cooper, G. P., Yeager, V., Burkle, F. M., Subbarao, I. (2015, June 29). Twitter as a Potential Disaster Risk Reduction Tool. Part I: Introduction, Terminology, Research and Operational Applications. Retrieved September 08, 2016, from NCMI: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4494697/ Daniel, K. (2013). An Assessment of Ethical Issues in Social and Science Research; https://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.ijpbs.20130302.01.html. Halder, B. (2016). Privacy Security Data Protection in Crowdsourcing Platforms: Issues and Recommendationshttps://www.weeklyscience.org/UploadedArticle/248.pdf. International Research Journal , 03 (48), 1-15. ICT. (2008, October 09). ICTs in Disaster Management. Retrieved 31 August, 2016, from Worldbank: siteresources.worldbank.org/Extedevelopment.../1ChanukaWattegamaOct8.ppt Management, I. i. (2009, November 09). A Case Study of Kenya Red Cross Society. Retrieved August 31, 2016, from uonbi: https://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/96437/Mung%E2%80%99ou%20_ICT%20In%20Disaster%20Management%20A%20Case%20Study%20Of%20Kenya%20Red%20Cross%20Society.pdf?sequence=1isAllowed=y Manavalan, R., Mohanram, N., Ramakrishnan, S. (2010). Thematic Session of Role if act in Disaster Management; https://nidm.gov.in/idmc/IDMC_Abstract/F-ICT%20in%20Disaster%20Management.pdf . Delhi. MIC. (2006). National Information Communications Technology (ICT) Policy. Retrieved September 08, 2016, from share4dev: https://www.share4dev.info/telecentreskb/documents/2651.pdf Mishra, M. (2015). Ethical, Legal and Social aspects of Information and Communication Technology; https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1507/1507.08447.pdf. Balasore: FM University. Wattegama, C. (2008, October 09). Disaster Management:Role of ICTs. Retrieved September 08, 2016, from siteresources: siteresources.worldbank.org/Extedevelopment/.../1ChanukaWattegamaOct8.ppt YAP, N. T. (2011). Disaster Management, Developing Country Communities Climate Change: The Role of ICTs. Retrieved September 08, 2016, from NICCD: https://www.niccd.org/sites/default/files/YapDisasterManagementDevelopmentICTs.pdf

The Effect Of Highspeed Trains On Society Essay Example For Students

The Effect Of Highspeed Trains On Society Essay A major reason in favor of the construction of high-speed trains in America is to relieve airways and traffic congestion. First, delays at airports are costly. Larry Johnson, director of the Center for transportation Research at Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago, calculates that passengers lose more that twelve million hours each year in delays at O’Hare airport alone. In 1986, according to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) airlines, delays cost five billion dollars, including two billion in extra fuel and labor cost, for the ailing airline industry. According to the FAA, relieving airport congestion will cost one hundred and seventeen billion over the next decade (Mobey 14). Transportation planners predict that freeways will suffer from unbearable gridlock over the next two decades. Their conventional wisdom maintains that the U.S. cannot build out of this congestion. The Southern California Association of Governments says that daily commute time, in the Los An geles area will double by two thousand and twenty and â€Å"unbearable† present conditions on the freeways will become â€Å"even worse†. By two thousand and twenty, drives are expected to spend Seve nty percent of their time in stop-and-go traffic, as compared to fifty six percent today. Similar predictions have been made for metro areas around the country. Yet the best alternatives that they can offer are to spend billions more on public transport that hardly anyone will use and to try to force people into carpools that do not fit the ways they actually live and work (Samuel p 1). Highway traffic is also costly. Maintaining the interstate highway system could run three trillion dollars over the next several decades (Moberg 14). Urban congestion is a hidden tax on the productivity and welfare of urban areas everywhere. In areas like Los Angeles and New York, this tax is eight billion dollars per year; nationally, about fifty six billion per year. In the next twenty ye ars, this insidious tax is projected to nearly double (Mallinckarodt p1). Bill Fay said,† Cars stuck in traffic waste more fuel and emit more pollutants than cars that are moving†(Dahl 4). High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes are one of the primary tools used to reduce traffic congestion on the state highway system and improve air quality (â€Å"HOV Lanes in California †¦Ã¢â‚¬  p1). The usual goal of HOV lane restrictions is to provide overall congestion, and emissions reduction (Mallinckdet. p 1). However, in recent years, HOV lanes effectiveness in achieving these goals has come in to question (â€Å"HOV Lanes in California †¦Ã¢â‚¬  p1). When drivers use a highway, they do not pay the cost that they may be imposing on other drivers. Ideally, traffic should flow smoothly at the speed limit. However, as traffic increases, eventually the addition of one more vehicle will slow the flow and increase the travel time of other vehicles. At this point congestion (th e negative externality) begins (Dahl p4). Sen Daniel Patrick Moynihan said,† The train technology, offers great opportunities to reduce congestion in our surface and air transportation system† (Clough 9). Thus building high-speed trains would aid the problem of increasing congestion at America’s airports and on the highways. We will write a custom essay on The Effect Of Highspeed Trains On Society specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Those who argue against high-speed trains cite their negative effects to the environment. Environmental concerns have been raised with respect to high-speed rail. High-speed rail’s ability to materially reduce air pollution and energy consumption is dependent upon significantly reducing automobile and airline use ( Dahl p2). The FDOT’s (Florida Department of Transportation) projections, anticipate so few people transferring from autos and air that any air pollution or energy gain would be inconsequential. Further, construction of major infrastructure projects consumes energy. It has been estimated that San Francisco’s BART rapid transit system consumed more energy in construction than the future diversion from automobiles would save (Dahl p4). Burning fossil fuels, a process that expends approximately two times as much energy as it produces, generates most Florida electric power. Electric propulsion thus loses some of its advantage over fossil fuel propulsion (Jo hnson 2). Additionally French Champagne growers claim that high-speed rail embankments trap cold air, threatening their crops. A similar effect in Florida could make preservation of adjacent citrus crops more challenging (Dahl 1). However, students are now being educated on