History of Colonization

History of Colonization Revolts in French ruled countries as opposed to Britain ruled countries To understand the causes of consequences, it becomes binding to have an idea of the background before the matter in dwelled into as a larger picture. The scramble for Africa started at the end of nineteenth century. European powers wanted to establish separate dominances over varied parts of the continent. After the initial hindrance of the geographical location was taken care of, each European power had vested interest in particular areas. Thus, they redrew the boundaries and the structure of the countries in the continent was revised to an immeasurable extent. The already existing political institutions were not concentrated upon. It led to forced partitions and mergers of a majority of the African countries. The traditional groups and monarchies were forced to break down and share their territory with literally new people. Thus multiple independent groups with each having their own history, culture, language and tradition were now belonging to one territory which would be ruled by one or more powers. Each ruling power was only looking for their own benefit. After a mass re division of the land, some parts were traded between the ruling countries to satisfy their own goals. Any kind of resistance by the native Africans was severely oppressed and made to die down by various Treaty and Conquest tactics. Although the colonial rule was expected to go on for over a period of more than 100 years, the ruling powers lacked sufficient man power to take over administration, governance over the economic growth. Indirect rule was favored with African authorities and thus emerged a new class if intermediaries whose job was to make sure that the government orders were fully executed. The pattern of economic activity started changing with commercial agriculture at a good pace. The countries started fair exports of these commodities as well as minerals. In certain parts of the continent, a given holding of a territory was declared as White Land. The literacy and primary education introduced throughout Africa by the Christian Missionaries led to the elites espousing nationalist ambitions. But it didn’t result in anything at this point as the African countries had nothing among them which would or could hold them together against the colonizing powers. Africans were residing in mere geographical boundaries. With the second World War, the game changed in Africa. All the new infrastructural developments and the rapid increase in agricultural production as well as the manufacture of other items that took place were to ensure the sustainability of the ruling European nations in the war. When the African troops were deputed for war, they learnt to a great deal about the freedom movements and struggles in the other parts of the world. When the war came to an end, just like the rest of the world, there was a lot of restlessness and frustration in Africa. Those who had served in the army were hoping to be rewarded by some share in the government of their country. The standard of living by then was in complete shambles. No proper housing facilities, high prices, no jobs and the problems continued. In order to provide some relief which would benefit their own interest, the colonial powers carved a way to include some of the African people in the political game. But gradually, some African thinkers started to believe in the idea of ‘self-government’ and demanded the same from the colonial power ruling that particular country. When this freedom was granted, the upcoming African political leaders were not trained and capable enough to run a country. Thus policies and decisions were not suitable for the development which led to increased corruption. Although no one really campaigned for independence, the political aspirations were centered on securing for the African population the same rights and privileges as those enjoyed by the fellow metropolitan people of the colonial power. But gradually, the march towards independence started in Africa. Like in any revolution, there were revolts across countries, against the governments. But there was a very obvious difference between the type and intensity of revolts in countries ruled by Britain and those ruled by the French. This is more of a comparative understanding rather than an analytical one. Here on, there is a sincere effort been made of following a timeline. When the continent of Africa was being divided by lines pre decided by the colonial invaders, some territories were swapped to satisfy their purposes. The British were primarily interested maintaining secure communication lines to India which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Then they intended to establish a Cape-Cairo railway. The control of Nile was also viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage. France had two motivations for its colonisation. Firstly, it wanted to establish markets, strategic bases for the French military and trading fleets around the world. Secondly, it wanted to exploit the natural resources and cheap labour of the colonies. Britain traded parts of northern Nigeria with France for fishing rights. France exchanged parts of Cameroon with Germany in return for German recognition of the French protectorate over Morocco. At the end of all the exchanges, the French claimed 3.75 million square miles while the British claimed 2 million square mil es. Early African reaction to European intrusion into Africa in the late 19th century was not uniform. A few groups that had suffered from long-term warfare or slave raiding (such as in parts of East Africa) gave an uncertain welcome to European presence in their regions in hope that there would be peace. Other groups strongly resisted the coming of European political control. However, many people had no initial reaction to colonialism. This was because the early year’s colonialism had little impact on the lives of many rural African peoples. This situation changed as the impact of colonialism became more widespread and intense in the middle decades of the 20th century. Until after the Second World War almost all the Africans living in the colonies of France were not citizens of France. Rather, they were French Subjects, lacking rights before the law, property ownership rights, rights to travel, dissent, or vote. Until after the Second World War almost all the Africans living in the colonies of France were not citizens of France. Rather, they were French Subjects, lacking rights before the law, property ownership rights, rights to travel, dissent, or vote. But post WW2, France started regarding their colonies not as separate territories but as a part of ‘La Plus Grande France’ But Britain’s strategy of pacifying all the nationalist ideas was different. They started by introducing new constituencies, providing for elections for a handful of members of the legislative councils. In the 1950’s, violence broke out in Algeria as France refused to grant Independence. The Algerian war started with the insurrection organised by the National Liberation Front (FLN), on November 1st, 1954, and lasted until 1962 when Algeria became independent. During those eight years one million Algerians died. In 1954 there were 200,000 Algerians living in France. Of those 150,000 were working, the majority in the building or steel industries. Slowly but surely the FLN began to organise Algerians in France. It was Algerians in France that were to finance the war. Tunisia and Morocco were granted independence and the rest 14 territories that France had under its wing, remained loyal to them. In British West Africa, everyone who was politically conscious was deemed to be a nationalist. On the other hand in French West Africa, there are Catholics and anti- clericals, Communists and Gaullists, Socialists, Syndicalist and Existentialists. LÃ ©opold SÃ ©dar Senghor was the first President of Senegal and the first African to be elected as a member of the French Academy. He wanted to not just stay in the French Union but the French Republic. Thus, he advocated political federation rather than independence between France and Africa. Post World War 2, the French Government bore a considerable amount of the administrative costs and provided subsidies for export crops. Until 1958, majority of the public investment and a sizeable amount of annual running costs plus vast sums of infrastructure were financed by France. When a new constitution was being drafted in the French ruled countries, except for Guinea, all other countries voted for a Franco-African community. But this did not last long and the African rulers demanded greater control. France then reached the conclusion that all territories under them would have to be launched as independent states. Meanwhile, in all the Britain ruled countries, the violence had been reaching a boiling point forcing England to jettison all long term plans of independence. Throughout the period of colonization, the French, no doubt ruthless colonisers, seem to have been more willing to consider the people of Africa a part of their culture and nation rather than believing in the principle of the ruler and the ruled upon as followed by Britain to a large extent. The French also wanted to see the fruits of their anti-slavery efforts in West Africa. Assimilation was one ideological basis of the French colonial policy. In contrast with British imperial policy, the French taught their subjects that, by adopting French language and culture, they could eventually become French. The famous Four Communes in Senegal can be seen as proof of this. And probably the only proof of the same. Here Africans were, in theory, afforded all the rights of French citizens. The French Assimilation concept was based on the idea of expanding French culture to the colonies outside of France in the 19th and 20th century. Natives of these colonies were considered French citizens as long as the culture and customs were adopted. This also meant they would have the rights and duties of French citizens. The French appeared to understand fully, even at an early stage, that assimilation of West Africans under tier control was not in the offing. Both the cost of implementing such a program and the tenacity of the indigenous populations prevented full-scale assimilation. Instead, the French sought to control the West African populations. By contrast, in the British colonies the approach was the opposite: they used local power holders rather than installing a whole new administration. Each system aimed to benefit the colonizers. The French were rather harsh in their administration and their attempts to increase their economic footholds, utilizing such means as forced labor and imprisonment to maintain and expand their interests. One of the most important aspects of the French colonization of West Africa was the requirement placed on the colony to pay its own way as a colony. The French administration sought to increase productivity and extract valuable resources. They fostered production of groundnuts and cotton where appropriate conditions were present and imposed taxation as a means of inducing participation in the cash economy. Where crops could not be grown, they encouraged migration to wage- earning areas. The French colonial encounter in West Africa was driven by commercial interests and, perhaps to a lesser degree, a civilizing mission. The political administration and the economic interests were fairly uniform throughout the colonial period. Little was done to improve the lives of West Africans, although attempts were made to provide minimal health and educational services. Whereas in the British areas of West Africa some portion of the economic gain accrued to an African middle class, no such dynami c occurred in the French context. Bibliography https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/students/curriculum/m7b/activity4.php http://www.historytoday.com/martin-evans/french-resistance-and-algerian-war http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-resistance.html http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=2920 file:///C:/Users/hp/Documents/africa/List%20of%20French%20possessions%20and%20colonies%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm file:///C:/Users/hp/Documents/africa/French%20West%20Africa%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm file:///C:/Users/hp/Documents/africa/Scramble%20for%20Africa%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-17_u-504_t-1362_c-5244/qld/sose/colonisation-resources-power-and-exploration/colonisation-history/france http://www.africa.upenn.edu/K-12/French_16178.html -Shalmali Ghaisas

Marijuana Users: Victims of Social Stigmatization and Unjust Penalties :: essays research papers

The Ninth Amendment of the United States Constitution states, â€Å"The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.† Simply put, this means that, although limited in its scope of rights and privileges, any particular right, even if not mentioned specifically in the Constitution, cannot be taken away from the American people. Yet, the chosen lifestyles of one particular group of people are violated almost every day: marijuana smokers. Victims of social stigmatization and harsh penalties, marijuana smokers must suffer because of the innumerable falsities and fallacies held by many people, including lawmakers, concerning marijuana. However, when an educated mind disregards the misconceptions about marijuana and analyzes the factual information, the relative personal and societal harm caused by marijuana usage does not warrant its overwhelmingly harsh punishment, nor does it merit the economic stra in caused by the enforcement of radical prohibition laws. What Is It? Marijuana is part of the cannabis family. Considered to be a mild hallucinogen, it produces feelings of euphoria and well-being, a loss of inhibition, an altered sense of time, heightened senses, and, upon high dosage, slight hallucinations. Its active chemical is a cannabinoid called Delta-9 tetrahyrocannabinol, or THC. Research has shown that the human body naturally produces a cannabinoid-like endorphine called anandamine, and that, upon entering the brain, THC locks onto the same receptor cells as does anandamine. THC affects the cerebellum, which coordinates movement and balance; the hippocampus, which dictates thinking and memory; and the rostral ventromedial medulla, in which the pain response is moderated (Booth 12-13). Damaging and Addictive?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The subject of marijuana’s addictive and damaging properties is a hotly debated topic. According to many opponents of marijuana, it is a highly addictive substance. Recent statistics report that 150,000 individuals enter treatment each year for marijuana addiction. Marijuana â€Å"addicts,† according to many experts, experience a decrease in social, occupational or recreational activities; are unable to discontinue their marijuana usage; experience a tolerance buildup and must consume more marijuana for the desired effect; and continue marijuana usage despite the knowledge it can cause severe psychological problems. Claiming marijuana to be emotionally and mentally addictive, experts contend that marijuana addicts allow marijuana to develop into who they believe themselves to be (Marijuana Addiction 1).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  However, the question still remains as to whether these circumstances are entirely true, and, if so, warrant the criminalization of marijuana. Compared to studies done on food addiction, the patterns of addiction are very similar.

Project planning and evaluation Essay

Before anyone is going to do something, there is nothing as sensible as planning. A plan as we know is something thought about and chalked out in advance before the real action takes place and is actually a recipe for success. But then, the word ‘plan’ does not need much of a definition. It has been used so much that it has become quite hackneyed. So, we all know what it means, but how many of us really resort to planning before we start a course of action. I’m not referring to a mental picture that we chart out in our minds that is in one word, vague. I mean a real plan in black and white, that is, put down on a piece of paper. It is so important because once we write down something, it clears up a lot of hazy areas and opens aspects that we probably overlooked. As the saying goes, â€Å"Trying to manage a project without project management is like trying to play a football game without a game plan†. In my M.A. class with our professor, Dr. Cirineo, I have learned so much about the significance of planning a project and of course, evaluation with the help of my classmates who have exerted their efforts in reporting the assigned topics. I have also done my part when I have reported about the Economic Analysis and I have learned so much from this, too. These are my views as I have studied and listened to the reports: II. INPUT: 1. PLANNING, APPRAISAL AND DESIGN (reported by: Ms. Jelly Rose S. Victor) The first phase of the Process of Project Management Cycle taught me that planning should begin with the end in sight. Good project plans begins with good implementation, methodologies and best practices that are consistent,  controlled and deliverables that meet expectations. If advanced preparation has been made, by the end of the meeting, the implementation is defined, the activities surrounding the project plan are established, the administrative procedures are implemented and the project monitoring and control processes are developed. In designing a project, I have learned that it should always be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-bounded) so that it would become valid and easy to realize. Project appraisal is also an important part of this phase because through this, you will be able to ensure that the expectations you have of your team members match the expectations that each individual has for themselves. As part of this process, it is important to schedule regular reviews throughout the year to suit the needs of your team. Thus, we need to appreciate the benefits we can gain from an effective appraisal process to monitor your team’s performance more than make up for the time invested. It will help increase the individual effectiveness of your team members. 2. SELECTION, APPROVAL AND ACTIVATION (reported by: Ms. Lorelyn A. Ignacio) In a project plan, it is good to know and understand that not all of the suggestions made in the plan would be approved and utilized. We still have to decide fully on what part of the plan should be selected, what should not be selected, what to approve and what to disapprove before we activate or execute our project. Why? Because there are things that we have to consider, knowing that not all things are suitable to implement based on the different situations and problems that may arise. The second phase of the Project Management Cycle made me realize that the process strives to increase productivity of the team and quality of deliverable. It enables quality control by measuring performance and comparing the same against what is planned. The simplest stage and perhaps the most complicated in practice is the execution stage which involves the integration of all inputs identified in the planning and design stage to construct the actual end product. On this part, the project manager should monitor the work of the team members on a daily basis. 3. OPERATION, CONTROL AND HANDOVER (reported by: Mrs. Marissa P. Agdong) This could be thought of as the perfecting phase, where analyzing the efficiency and quality of the project cycle from a strategic perspective allows for the optimization of the operational processes. This step-by-step process highlights each feasible step in the project management cycle. By appropriately incorporating each step of the model into the planning stage, managers can effectively forecast the deliverables and avoid losing value through accurately assessing the margins that will be produced in a given strategic initiative. The control cycle is an important part of quality control, and it not only verifies the delivery of good quality but also identifies gaps and failures that need to be addressed. Ultimately, it is a process that continuously evolves within the production process. In this phase, which is the third, I’ve learned four important steps: PLAN, DO, CHECK and ACT. 4. EVALUATION AND REFINEMENT (reported by: Ms. Bernarda T. Cudal) After listening to the reporter, I have realized that in the Process of Project Management Cycle, we should not set aside this very important stage: Evaluation and Refinement. It is a major part of learning, and can provide a wealth of useful information on the outcomes of a project or action, and the dynamics of those who undertook the work. Through the identification of the highlights and lowlights of the project, evaluation draws conclusions which can inform future decision making, and assist to define future projects and policies. Evaluation and Refinement are undertaken for a number of reasons such as to reflect on how you are developing, to see whether you need to improve the way things are being done, to be accountable to those who are funding the project, to review and adjust the methods and techniques used and how effective they are, to determine whether you have met your objectives or not and to provide information for planning future projects. 5. PROJECT IDENTIFICATION: DEFINING AND SPECIFYING THE PROJECT (reported by: Ms. Riza T. De Guzman) As I am writing this reaction paper, I have thought of imagining the different products we have worldwide. Every product has a name, unique and advertised. Why? because owners of those products want to be identified, and recognized. Same with making our own project, it should be born with a need to be identified by several customers who will be willing to provide funds as their needs would be satisfied in return. The key feature of this activity is to recognize that identifying candidate projects is something that an organization should do not just once a year but on a regular basis. To define a project, we must first identify the objectives, scope and sequence, and the resources of the project. The main purpose of specifying the project scope is to ensure a clear understanding of the business problem and the proposed solution. It is must to give a clear understanding about the project and provide a direction. Its intention is to state what is going to be in the project and what is not going to be part of the project out of scope. It must clearly define a project boundary to minimize the expectation gap between the client and the team. 6. SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS (reported by: Ms. Diana T. Rabaca) Before we start implementing and executing our projects or before we build it somewhere, it is very important to analyze the present situation that is being encountered in a certain area. In this way, our project would become successful, just because it becomes an answer to the problems arose in a certain area. For example, there are so many stores that are selling food in that place, but no one sells drinks yet, and customers need it, then you are the one to serve it! Situational Analysis is the first step in formulating a plan. It identifies and prioritizes problem situations affecting the target population or specific segments of the population, providing possible solutions and actions needed to solve a problem. It seeks to answer several questions such as : What is the problem?; Why is there a problem?; Who are affected by the problem?; and What has been done to solve the problem?. The information needed to answer these questions are both quantitative and qualitative such as the outcomes, the resources, the services and the facilities, the acess and utilization of services and facilities and the environment of course. 7. MARKET ANALYSIS (reported by: Ms. Jeanaline A. Ajel) I have learned that the goal of Market Analysis is to determine the attractiveness of a market, both now and in the future. It is part of the industry analysis and this in turn of the global environmental analysis. Through this analysis, the opportunities, strengths, weaknesses and threats of a company can be identified. Market Segmentation is the basis for a differentiated market analysis. Differentiation is important because the saturation of consumption, which exists due to the increasing competition in offered products. Consumers ask for more individual products and services and are better informed about the range of products than before. As a consequence, Market Segmentation is indispensable. To identify and classify the relevant market, a market classification or segmentation has to be done. 8. TECHNICAL ANALYSIS (reported by: Mr. Leonardo Diez, Jr.) Our reporter in technical analysis had explained this report comprehensively by using different concrete examples based on real life situations. Accordingly, Technical Analysis is a method of evaluating securities by analyzing statistics generated by market activity, such as past prices and volume. Technical analysts do not attempt to measure a security’s intrinsic value, but instead use charts and other tools to identify patterns that can suggest future activity. The reporter was fair enough that he decided to discuss both the positive and the negative side of Technical Analysis. These are the strengths: If the objective is to predict the future price, then it makes sense to focus on price movements. Price movements usually precede fundamental developments. By focusing on price action, technicians are automatically focusing on the future. These are the weaknesses: Argument is the fact that technical analysis is open to interpretation. It is in the eye of the beholder. It is subjective and our personal biases can be reflected in the analysis. In conclusion, Technical Analysis in terms of security is somehow, debatable. 9. ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS (reported by: Mr. Danny Cruz) In project planning, it is important to identify the constraints that may affect the natural environment. We should always consider how our projects would affect other people, communities, and the environment like road construction, logging, and tree clearing and building a hydroelectric dam. Remember that Environmental Analysis is often required by law, but the process is intended to be a very useful planning tool to help make good decisions and improve projects. So we should consider this not just because it is a must but because it is systematic, interdisciplinary, and develop practical alternatives to the proposed action. The reporter gave the following recommended practices: Open project information to public scrutiny; Involve all parties affected by the project and learn to communicate. 10. OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS (reported by: Ms. Racquel R. Santos) I have realized that operational analysis is an excellent method of assessing the financial performance of the business, determining whether the cost of production is compatible with performance numbers and strategic goals. It looks closely at financial and resource investments, and determines whether adjustments must be made so that the company’s strategic goals may be met in an efficient, cost effective manner. Thorough operational analysis ought to address a few principal questions in its effort to ascertain if operations are efficiently meeting strategic planning. The first key area to be considered is whether financial and resource investment is delivering planned output to the optimum consumer base. It can also determine if there is any existing need for additional investment and recommend areas where investment could be reallocated or streamlined. Thus, in conducting an Operational Analysis, we have to observe, interview, report and conclude so that a gap analysis can be conducted and adjustments may be made. 11. ADMINISTRATIVE ANALYSIS (reported by: Ms. Joe – Ann C. Magno) Aside from understanding the significance of administrative analysis in project planning, I have also realized that there are differences between the word â€Å"Administration† and â€Å"Management† in its role to project planning and implementation. The difference between the two can be summarized under 2 categories: Functions and Usage. On the basis of functions, Administration is a thinking function because it is a decision – making function while Management is a doing function because it is an executing function. On the basis of usage, however, Administration is applicable to non – business concerns such as club, schools, hospitals and the like, while Management is applicable to business concerns such as profit-making organizations. Administration represents owners of the enterprise who earn return on their capital invested & profits in the form of dividend. Management constitutes the employees of the organization who are paid remuneration (in the form of salaries & wages). 12. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS (reported by Mr. Joseph P. Mendoza) Is the project cost reasonable? Can it be done? How long will it take to design? How much will each one cost to make? How much will it cost to bring the product to market? These are the questions arise as I listened to the report on Financial Analysis. For investors, to engage in a new investment project, the project has to be financially viable. Invested capital must show the potential to generate an economic return to investors at least equal to that available from other similarly risky investments. For me, I agree with that because I think, no one would engage himself into business without money and interest involved in return. A number of reasons why to conduct a financial analysis are: first, it provides quality information for decision-making, it helps attract equity investments and securing funding from lending institutions and other monetary sources and lastly, it identifies reasons whether to proceed or not to proceed with the project. 13. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS (reported by me: Ms. Analyn M. Cruz) Wow! This is my report! I am so glad that Dr. Cirineo gave me the opportunity to discuss this over the class for it became my favorite subject way back 2005 when I was a senior highschool. It gave me a room to reopen my notes and study the lesson which my favorite teacher used to discuss in our class with excellence, clarity and comprehension. As we all know, Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek ÃŽ ¿Ã¡ ¼ °ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ± (oikonomia, â€Å"management of a household, administration†) from ÃŽ ¿Ã¡ ¼ ¶ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (oikos, â€Å"house†) + ÃŽ ½ÃÅ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (nomos, â€Å"custom† or â€Å"law†), hence â€Å"rules of the house(hold)† Economic Analysis is a process whereby the strengths and weaknesses of an economy are analyzed. Economic analysis is important in order to understand the exact condition of an economy. – The purpose of the economic feasibility assessment is to determine the positive economic benefits to the organization that the proposed system will provide. Now that we have temporal project plan to answer to: What will be done?, Who will do it?, When will it be done? What are the necessary resources? We still have to answer: How much will it cost? and How will the resource  capital be applied? Why? because Money is important in the enterprise world. Our projects live in this context. Enterprises have a lot of projects, and the cost is an important criteria. ACCORDING TO THE HANDBOOK ON ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF INVESTMENT OPERATIONS (WB, 1998) – we have to consider the following: What is the objective of the project? What will happen if it implemented, and what if it is not? Is the project the best alternative? Are there any separable components and how good are they separately? Who are the gainers and losers? Is the project financially sustainable? What are the fiscal and environmental impacts? Is the project worthwhile? What is the risk of the project not achieving its objectives? Economic analysis of sector investment programs should include a clear rationale for the expenditure, motivated by a desire to correct market failure or alleviate poverty, otherwise public spending simply crowds out private supply, resulting in few net benefits to the economy. I have ended my report by letting the whole class reflect on the EXCELLENT TIPS given by WARREN BUFFET, a business man. And it goes like this†¦ On Earning: â€Å"Never depend on single income. Make investment to create a second source.† On Spending: â€Å"If you buy things you do not need, soon you will have to sell things you need.† On Savings: â€Å"Do not save what is left after spending, but spend what is left after saving.† On Taking Risk: â€Å"Never test the depth of river with both the feet.† On Investment: â€Å"Do not put all your eggs in one basket.† On Expectations: â€Å"Honesty is very expensive gift. Do not expect it from cheap people.† 14. SOCIAL ANALYSIS (reported by: Ms. Sherilyn P. Navat) I have understood the report through the help of illustrations shown by the presentor. When we say social, it involves to public, the community or the society. Thus, in Social Analysis, we have to consider the social characteristics of an area, including its demographic structure, general quality of life, social services and social justice. The framework for Social Entry Points includes five entry points such as Social Diversity and Gender, Institution, Rules and Behavior, Stakeholders, Participation and Social Risk. Five entry points, one result because team will have a clear  map of the socio-cultural barriers and bridges to project goals, a good sense of the institutional arrangements and resources they will need and a set of indicators which to measure their success in meeting the project’s development objective. Through this, I have realized that BETTER DATA + BETTER ANALYSIS = BETTER PROJECT. 15. POLITICAL ANALYSIS (reported by: Mrs. Ma. Socorro L. Dayao) At first, there was a big question mark and a lot of questions that came in my mind not knowing that there could also be a so – called Political Analysis involved in Project Planning and Evaluation. But later on, after the report has been made, I have now realized that the Political Analysis, which is the last of all the analyses discussed, plays an important role in project planning, designing, implementing, monitoring and evaluation. Political Analysis is a one way to develop strategic approach to external players. It is a process of disaggregating the key players in a community or policy environment, identifying how they influence progress toward your goals, and developing strategies to interact with them to advance your goals. There are seven key elements involved in the political analysis framework: the Actors, Motivations/Interests, Participation, Resources, Strategies, Tactics, Influence and Action Channel. Individuals who have the same interest or motivation might not necessarily be involved or active in a particular issue or project. In addition to their level of interest or motivation, each party’s ability to participate will depend on: their likelihood of success, visibility of the issue, costs of participating, and What opportunities they have to participate. The extent and nature of each actor’s participation will also depend on the resources that favor their objectives/interests. So, we must not be negatively too much affected by them. Let’s take them as â€Å"mixed blessings†. 16. PROJECT APPRAISAL AND PROJECT SELECTION (reported by: Ms. Rodelyn G. Pidoc) Project Appraisal provides a comprehensive and systematic review of all aspects of the project. After the preparation and design, it is being done for the development and successful completion of projects. To determine whether a project proposal is adopted or rejected, there should be appropriateness of project objectives, size, scope, implementation methods, modalities, time scale, and the project technical, financial, economic, institutional, environmental, social and distributional justification of the project. Thus, good appraisal systems should ensure that: project application, appraisal and approval functions are separate, all the necessary information is gathered for appraisal, Race/tribal equality and other equality issues are given proper consideration, those involved in appraisal have appropriate technical expertise and there are realistic allowances for time involved. Appraisal is an important decision making tool. Need, targeting and objectives. Context and connections, Consultation, Option, Inputs, Value for money, Implementation, and Risk Uncertainty are the key issues discussed in appraising one’s project. On the other hand, Project Selection is a process to assess each project idea and select the project with the highest priority. We do it when one has more ideas than the number of projects one can undertake and need to select the project that should be given priority. We do it because oftentimes, one will have a number of suggested projects but not enough resources, money or time to undertake all of the projects. So, if the organization in question has limited experience then it is recommended to concentrate on a small number of projects, ideally one project at a time, until the people in the organization have developed the skills and experience. One should do the easy projects first and, only then, work towards the most difficult and rewarding projects. One should use the easy projects to help answer questions/solve issues for the more difficult projects. Also, one should use the best opportunities to learn. Involving the Project Manager in the Project Selection process will help build ownership in the project and support a successful project in the long run. All the project selection processes and methods emphasized and described along the presentation are absolutely essential for an efficient business planning. It is always best to have a good plan from the inception, with a list of criteria to be considered and goals to be achieved. This will guide one through the entire selection process, and will also ensure that one does makes the right choice. 17. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION (reported by: Mrs. Kathyrine A. Placido) This is a very awakening topic for all of us. Yes, it is true, and I have realized – that a project, no matter how nice it is planned, if it cannot be implemented, is nothing at all because the highlight of every project and main reason why we planned is this – the implementation. Project Implementation is a process whereby â€Å"project inputs are converted to project outputs†. It may be looked at as: putting into action the activities of the project or putting into practice what was proposed in the project document (i.e. transforming the project proposal into the actual project.). In simplest term, it is the so – called Project Execution. Time taken to implement project activities is one measure of successfulness of supervision or monitoring of project implementation. Supervisor pays particular attention to time control measures, time scheduling and its supervision, time extension and postponement, damages for non-completion and defect or warranty period. Factors affecting project implementation are: Poor scheduling of projects leading to delays in implementation; Misallocation of funds; Delay and sometimes lack of counterpart funding; Lack of accountability and transparency; Bureaucracy in decision-making and Selfishness/ nepotism/ favoritism by some project managers. Thus, to better implement the project, a good project manager should: have working knowledge in several fields, be able to understand general managerial problems, have active interest in training and developing subordinates, and be able to delegate some tasks to subordinates. He should know the project and understand its objectives as well as the systematic process for managing projects. 18. PROJECT MONITORING AND MONITORING TOOLS (reported by: Mr. Rodelio D. Pantaleon) This is an unforgettable report that we have listened to in our class with Dr. Cirineo. Why?, because the reporter used a motivational activity before proceeding to the discussion of his topic. He classified us into 5 groups: The medicines, the nurses, the doctors, the patients, hospital and ambulance for the over-all. The rule of the game is that we have to rise and shout whenever we hear him say our group’s name. So along his story-telling, we did our part actively as he kept on mentioning our group’s name. In that case, he was able to monitor the success of the plan and in the end, was able to recognize the excellent team! As a reward, he gave a prize to the winners! In the discussion process, the project management cycle was again presented: the Plan, Do, Check and Act, together with the Triple Constraint which affects the quality of a product: the Scope, the Time and the Cost. He presented a GANTT CHART as an example of a monitoring tool. Why do we monitor? Simply because we know that things don’t always go according to plan (no matter how much we prepare). We have to detect and react appropriately to deviations and changes to plans. At the execution stage when the actual tasks of the project are in progress, it is vital to monitor information in order to keep track of what is being accomplished. The project manager can facilitate the project by communicating with team members and clients. Through hands-on monitoring, the team leader can make sure that individual participants stay with the original plan for the project and remain focused on predetermined goals. The project manager takes careful notes to follow all aspects of the project and address any problems that come up. Time management monitoring is executed by the project manager to make sure deadlines are being met as the project moves forward. Time sheets are used to monitor the time individual team members spend on tasks within the project. The team leader can identify and resolve any time management issues that arise. Projects can become disorganized and difficult to manage without some sort of monitoring and tracking of the progress. It is important to monitor the progress based on the goals for both timeliness and finished tasks. Budget and quality monitoring are included. If you don’t do it, you won’t know if you have succeeded. Without a well thought out Monitoring and Evaluation Plan project managers will not be able to tell whether the project has achieved its objectives. This significantly undermines the value of the project. and, as perception becomes reality, a project that cannot clearly demonstrate success will always be in danger of being seen as a failure. 19. COMPLETION AND ASSIMILATION (reported by: Ms. Marilyn B. Britanico) This is the phase that requires the highest level of coordination. The purpose of project completion is to assess the project, ensure completion, and derive any lessons. Project completion should be anticipated and planned as early as possible in the project lifecycle even though it is often the last major process of a project’s life. To avoid problems, project managers must plan for this stage of the integrated project cycle in a systematic way, with the goal of smooth and efficient handover of authority, assimilation. III. INSIGHTS: Planning helps us to have a better idea about the course of action that we propose to take. Planning better defines the course of action that we propose to undertake. Planning gives a rough estimate of the time required for a project. Planning gives us a fairly good idea about the expenses involved in the project. Planning helps us to get prepared for emergencies that may arise during the course of the project. A well thought about plan gives us a clear idea about what is to be done every day, every week and every month. Planning helps avoid duplication of labor. If a plan is followed, everyone will have a clear idea about his or her role. IV. IMPLICATIONS: Whatever be the plan, I want to stress the point that a plan should always be time bound. Plans should always be time bound and there we get the relation between time management and planning. In fact, planning is as fundamental to time management as organizing and prioritizing. We should have both short term plans as well as long term strategy plans. To ensure that the time schedule is being adhered to, the project activity time listing can be of great importance. At the same time we should also try to draft out contingency plans to deal with a crisis if it arises. As the project moves along, the plan should be flexible in the sense that it should incorporate any changes that might prove necessary once the project is put into action. View as multi-pages

Referee Report Risk of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Due to Diet - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1542 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/02/15 Category Health Essay Level High school Topics: Diet Essay Did you like this example? Initially, when choosing an academic article to read and analyze, I wanted to choose something that I would be really invested in. Throughout my life, my grandfather has battled non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and I wanted to research what are some possible onsets of this disease. Could it possibly be diet? Could it be hereditary? These are questions I intended to answer through my research. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Referee Report Risk of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Due to Diet" essay for you Create order At the conclusion of my research, I narrowed my focus to one article, in particular, that used regressions from data collected to show the correlation between diet, among other things, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. â€Å"Risk of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma and Nitrate and Nitrite From Drinking Water and Diet† by Mary H. Ward, James R. Cerhan, Joanne S. Colt, and Patricia Hartge explores diet and other impurities we consume as humans in Iowa, Detroit, Seattle, and Los Angeles from 1998 to 2000. While this study was initially done to observe nitrite and nitrate levels in water and diet in Iowa, Detroit, Seattle, and Los Angeles, Iowa was the only state observed whose nitrate levels were abnormal relative to the other states. Therefore, the study decided to isolate this state in their research and focus solely on Iowa’s diet and water composition. Nitrate is significant in this area because it is more rural, and most traces of nitrate come from fertilizer, waste, and air pollution. â€Å"This analysis was part of a population-based case-control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma conducted in 4 4 Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) centers to investigate the role of environmental exposures in NHL risk.† (375) Water sources with over 70% nitrate levels since 1960 were studied. 117 item food questionnaires were used to determine how the population’s diet played a role in their health. â€Å"Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using logistic regression, adjusting for the study matching factors, education, and caloric intake.† (375) By the conclusion of the study, it was determined that there was no correlation between drinking water and NHL. There was also no correlation between vitamin c, red meat, and NHL. However, it was concluded that bread and cereal did hold significant value in determining NHL susceptibility. There were many parts of this report that I was able to appreciate. There were a lot of numbers and scientific fact included in the research. This shows me that research was done prior to this and that the review of the research was very thorough. This shows me that this report was not only made for health economists, but scientists and researchers as well. I appreciated the way they used a complete list of residences and the times they lived at these specific residences. They also used very specific dates, different from just a calendar year, to group the population into certain age groups. Data was collected from 28 years prior to when the study was conducted to have a large sample size of data. Every single type of water was examined, from private wells, public water, bottled water, and any other type of water that does not directly fit into one of these categories. (376) Concerning diet, an extensive food questionnaire was put into place that even took dietary and vitamin supplem ent intake into consideration. The focus of the dietary portion of the research was water intake, meat preparation methods, doneness of food/meat, and vegetable intake. Some vegetables have higher nitrate levels than others. (377) It is actually possible to have an increased risk of NHL from too much or too little vitamin C intake. (378) :The use of monitoring data for assessing exposure to nitrate has several limitations. Distribution samples taken at one or more taps quarterly or annually (as is required) may not adequately reflect exposure if there is substantial seasonal or spatial variation.† (381) I was pleased to see that the study was able to address the struggles they faced during research and the shortcomings they may have experienced. Throughout the study, I noticed parts that were not cohesive with the rest of the study or that may have hindered the overall message that it was trying to send so I appreciate the self-reflection on the part of the researchers.  "Our results for NHL in Iowa do not confirm results from our previous study in Nebraska in which NHL risk increased with increasing nitrate levels in public supplies†¦ additional studies of populations with higher exposure levels would be informative.† (382) There was also a study conducted in Nebraska that concluded the exact opposite results so for the researchers to acknowledge that is a step in the right direction for possibly one day correcting their deficiencies and getting an exact result on if these factors correlate to non-Hodgkin lymphoma. There were a few parts of the article that I did not like as well. There were many science terms that I was not familiar with. I wish I had more of a science background to be able to understand most of the reactions the article was saying would happen with nitrate and nitrite within the body to be able to form NHL. It required me to pay attention to trends within the numbers instead of actually understanding why things are happening the way they are. I do not like that they only focused on Iowa instead of the other 3 states. I feel like you are cutting out a good chunk of your sample size by negating the data from 3 states just because they were not rural enough. During testing, more women were tested than men were and more whites were tested than other racial groups. Having different genetic make-ups, I feel that only focusing on one gender or racial group would skew the results. The study focused mostly on private wells within Iowa since public water supplies were expected to be controlled as far as water impurities and composition. I feel that th is is an egregious error in assuming and could very well effect the outcome of the results. Increasing nitrite caused an increase in the risk of NHL. Most of this nitrite came from nitrite rich breads and cereals. (380) â€Å"A small percentage of the study population had more than a few years of exposure to nitrate levels.† (380) I do not see how a study can say that it is legitimate if most of the population had even been exposed to nitrate long enough for it to affect their body and possibly give them NHL. â€Å"Our study could not evaluate risk at nitrate levels above the maximum contaminant level due to the lack of historical exposure data for private wells and the infrequent exposure above this level among public water supply users.† (381) This particular research group had done 3 previous tests of the same kind in different geographic locations and the results were all different. (380) That makes me question the validity of the research. As previously stated, I did not understand many of the scientific terms that were used in the research. I also did not understand the 4 pathologic groups that were used in the study: follicular, diffuse, t-cell, and other classifications. It seemed that they wanted to be very specific in certain aspects of the study, such as food questionnaires, but then take shortcuts in other aspects, such as cutting out  ¾ of your sample size by not testing the other states. They focused on NHL cases without HIV in ages 20-74. I am not sure what having HIV has to do with NHL. I would assume these are two very separate diseases and do not correlate at all. This also cutting out your sample size. It was determined that most private wells had no nitrate, some had a bit of nitrate, and only 8 wells had concerning levels of nitrate. (377) This goes against the notion that the other 3 testing areas would not have offered any insight into nitrate levels because the rural area they tested ended up havin g less nitrate than the city. They used unconditional logic regression. I have gone over regressions in Econ Stats and Econometrics but have not encountered this regression yet. Therefore, I was confused as to how this regression is actually used. They also used body mass as a category of the population. I am not sure why this was used because I feel that if you have a higher body mass you will eat or drink more food that potentially contains pollutants, so it will eventually even out and body mass will not have to be taken into account. It is not as if everyone is eating or drinking the same amount. They eat or drink according to their body mass so it does not need to be accounted for. Smoking was introduced halfway into the study and I am not sure why this was not addressed earlier into the study because smoking has shown direct correlations to cancer so this was vital information that needed to be presented to the reader at the beginning of the article. (377) Overall, the effort of the study was there. Intentions were good, but execution could have been better. There was a lot of over focusing on one aspect while not enough focus was placed in other areas. Allocation of resources, labor, and time management could have made this study a lot more effective and worthwhile because ultimately, the conclusion did not yield anything significant since their previous 3 studies all showed different results.